British Expansion in India: Modern History Notes
Content
- Introduction
- Background of British Raj in India
- Early Success of British Rulers in the South
- Occupation of Bengal
- Expansion of Territories under British Rule in India
- Control of Administration under British Rule
- Resistance to British Rule before 1857
- Causes of British Success in India
- FAQs
Introduction
The emergence of British rule in India unfolded gradually over several decades. What initially began as the British East India Company’s pursuit of trade and commercial opportunities ultimately evolved into the establishment of a vast colonial dominion.
Decisive encounters such as the Battles of Plassey and Buxar marked turning points that facilitated the company’s territorial growth. The weakening of the Mughal Empire and widespread political disunity further aided British consolidation through policies like the Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse.
Background of British Raj in India
The prosperity enjoyed by Portuguese traders significantly inspired British interest in Indian commerce. The immense potential for profit led a group of English merchants, known as the ‘Merchant Adventurers’. It was to establish the East India Company in 1599 AD.
- Royal Farman: The Mughal Emperor granted the East India Company a Royal Farman, permitting duty-free trade within the empire. This decree proved to be a turning point, enabling the Company to expand its commercial operations without the burden of customs duties.
- Establishment of Factories: Initially, the Company concentrated on setting up trading outposts and negotiating favorable commercial privileges with local rulers. Early coastal factories were founded at Surat, Masulipatnam, and Madras. Those served as vital centers for trade and administration.
- Competition with European Rivals: Through they had superior naval strength, strategic alliances with regional powers, and efficient company administration. The East India Company eventually surpassed its European competitors, establishing dominance in Indian trade.
- Decline of the Mughal Empire: The weakening of Mughal authority during the late 17th century, along with the emergence of regional powers. Such as the Marathas, Mysore, and the Nizam of Hyderabad, led to increasing political instability.
- Filling the Political Vacuum: The decline of central power and the Marathas’ defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat created a political void in the subcontinent. The British capitalized on this opportunity, gradually expanding their authority. It led the foundation for colonial rule in India.
Early Success of British Rulers in the South
The East India Company (EIC) took its first significant step toward territorial expansion in the Carnatic region of southern India. And then engaged in a series of conflicts with the French East India Company. These confrontations, collectively known as the Carnatic Wars, were intertwined with regional power struggles and succession disputes among Indian states.
- Carnatic Wars: The ongoing rivalries among Indian kingdoms and the succession conflicts provided both the British and the French an opportunity to expand their political footprint in India. These wars transformed the political scenario, ultimately establishing the British as the predominant European power. While the French influence waned and native rulers grew weaker, paving the way for colonial dominance.
- British Advantages: By the conclusion of the Third Carnatic War, the British had decisively surpassed the French. And secured control over vital trade routes and regional authority. They also assimilated valuable strategic lessons from French leaders like Dupleix. Particularly the art of leveraging internal conflicts among Indian rulers for political advantage. These tactics later proved instrumental in their subsequent successes in Bengal and beyond.
Occupation of Bengal
The East India Company’s next major advance toward territorial supremacy took place in the prosperous and politically crucial province of Bengal.
- Battle of Plassey (1757): The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked a decisive turning point in the Company’s expansion of power. Exploiting internal dissension and court intrigues, the EIC’s forces under Robert Clive defeated the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. This victory enabled the installation of Mir Jafar, the Company’s ally, as the new Nawab. It effectively placed Bengal under British influence. The newfound control not only granted the EIC access to Bengal’s immense wealth and resources. But also significantly strengthened its military and financial position.
- Battle of Buxar (1764): The Company consolidated its authority through another pivotal encounter in 1764—the Battle of Buxar—fought against the combined forces of Mir Kasim (Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. The EIC’s victory led to the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765, through which it secured the Diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This effectively made the Company both the administrator and revenue authority in eastern India, laying the foundation of British civil and fiscal control.
- Dual Government System: The so-called ‘Dual Government’ emerged as a result of this arrangement. While the Nawab of Bengal retained nominal sovereignty (Nizamat), the EIC exercised real power through its control over revenue (Diwani) and judicial administration. Though this system preserved a façade of indigenous rule, the true authority rested with the Company. The arrangement lasted until 1773, when Bengal came under direct Company control and Warren Hastings was appointed as the first Governor-General.
Expansion of Territories under British Rule in India
The East India Company’s territorial expansion beyond Bengal stemmed from a mix of strategic, political, and economic drivers. This growth was accelerated by the prevailing political instability across India and the persistent rivalries among indigenous rulers.
Conquest of Marathas and Mysore
Following the policy of “Ring-Fence”, the British sought to safeguard their political and territorial interests by forming strategic alliances with regional powers. Under this approach, Awadh and the Nizam of Hyderabad were turned into buffer states to contain and weaken the expansionist ambitions of the Marathas and Mysore, respectively.
- Anglo-Maratha Wars: The British fought a series of three wars against the Maratha Confederacy and the Peshwa. These conflicts, known collectively as the Anglo-Maratha Wars, ultimately ended with the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1819), which resulted in the defeat of the Marathas and the consolidation of British control over western and central India.
- Annexation of Mysore: The British also subdued Mysore after a protracted struggle. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) culminated in the Treaty of Srirangapatnam (1792) prior to Tipu Sultan’s final defeat, under which half of Mysore’s territory was ceded to the British and their allies, further extending British dominance in southern India.
Subsidiary Alliance
Lord Wellesley introduced the Subsidiary Alliance system in 1798 to bring princely states under British control. It required Indian rulers to maintain British troops within their territories, either by ceding land or paying a subsidy, and host a British Resident.
This allowed Britain to maintain a large army at the expense of local rulers. The system imposed three major conditions:
- Accept permanent British troops and pay their maintenance costs.
- Obtain British approval before employing Europeans.
- Consult the Governor-General before negotiating with other rulers.
Some of the prominent states that were incorporated under the Subsidiary Alliance system include Awadh (the first state to join the alliance through the Treaty of Allahabad), Mysore, Hyderabad, Marathas, Kittur, etc.
Doctrine of Lapse
- The Doctrine of Lapse was a policy applied by Lord Dalhousie and implemented by the British East India Company in India during the mid-19th century. This doctrine applied to those states that had signed a Subsidiary Alliance with the British.
- It mandated that any princely state or territory under the direct influence of the British East India Company would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either “manifestly incompetent” or died without a direct heir.
- Dalhousie annexed Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854), etc., using this doctrine. However, the doctrine had already been applied in 1824 when Kittur was annexed.
Conquest of Punjab and Sindh
Punjab: After the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars, the British East India Company gained control over the region.
Sindh: Strategic plotting by Lord Auckland and the Tripartite Treaty of 1838 facilitated British control over Sindh, culminating in its annexation after the Battle of Miani in 1843
Occupation of Foreign Territories
Burma: British rule in Burma lasted from 1824 to 1948, initially as a province of British India until 1936 and later as a separately administered region.
- First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26): Ended with the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), under which Burma ceded control over Assam, Manipur, and Arakan to the British.
- Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852–53): Ended with the Treaty of Pegu, granting British control over Lower Burma.
- Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885–86): Marked the end of Burma’s independence.
Balochistan: The Treaty of Gandamak (1879) between the British and Afghans gave the British control over the Bolan Pass and other areas in Balochistan.
Territories acquired from Nepal: Through the Anglo-Nepalese War (Gurkha War) of 1814–16 and the subsequent Treaty of Sugauli, the British gained Shimla, Sikkim (including Darjeeling), the basins of Gandaki and Karnali, and the Uttarakhand regions of Garhwal and Kumaon from Nepal.
Control of Administration under British Rule
With the acquisition of the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, the East India Company (EIC) found itself in an unprecedented position, functioning both as a trading corporation and as a governing authority. This dual role demanded the creation of a structured administrative framework to manage the Company’s expanding territorial and financial responsibilities.
Regulating Act of 1773:
This was the first significant legislative measure passed by the British Parliament to regulate the EIC’s affairs. The act aimed to place the Company’s operations under parliamentary control. It established the office of the Governor-General (the first being Warren Hastings) to centralize oversight of the EIC’s territories in India.
Pitt’s India Act of 1784:
This act introduced the Board of Control in London, composed of British Cabinet ministers, to supervise and direct the Company’s political and administrative policies, ensuring alignment with British national interests.
Lord Cornwallis:
Building upon these reforms, Lord Cornwallis (Governor-General from 1786 to 1793) strengthened the administrative foundation of Company rule. He introduced the Cornwallis Code, a comprehensive set of legal and civil service reforms designed to enhance efficiency, integrity, and systematic governance within the EIC’s Indian territories.
Charter Act of 1833:
This act marked a turning point by legalizing the British colonization of India. It formally ended the Company’s commercial functions, converting it into an administrative agency. Additionally, it empowered the Governor-General to annex Indian territories, paving the way for the expansion of British sovereignty across the subcontinent.
Resistance to British Rule before 1857
British colonial rule severely disrupted India’s traditional economy. The promotion of British manufactured goods led to the decline of Indian industries, resulting in a massive drain of wealth from India to England.
Causes:
The imposition of exploitative agricultural, economic, and political policies generated widespread discontent. Heavy land revenue demands, destruction of local crafts, and British annexation policies provoked anger and hardship among both rulers and subjects.
Major Instances of Resistance:
- Vellore Mutiny (1806): The first large-scale and violent uprising by Indian sepoys against the East India Company. It was triggered by new uniform regulations that banned turbans, beards, and religious marks, offending religious sentiments.
- Kittur Revolt (1824): Led by Rani Chennamma of Kittur, this rebellion arose in protest against the Doctrine of Lapse, well before its formal introduction in 1848. Despite her resistance, Rani Chennamma was eventually captured.
- Peasant and Tribal Revolts: Movements such as the Sanyasi Rebellion, Mappila Uprisings (1836–1854), and Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) reflected rural and tribal anger against British land revenue and forest policies, which disrupted traditional ways of life.
Causes of British Success in India
The establishment of British dominance in India was facilitated by multiple interacting factors that weakened indigenous resistance and strengthened British power.
- Decline of the Mughal Empire: The disintegration of central authority created a political vacuum, enabling the British to gradually extend their influence.
- Military Superiority: The British possessed advanced artillery, disciplined infantry, and superior strategic organization, giving them an edge in warfare.
- Naval Supremacy: Control over maritime trade routes allowed Britain to secure supply lines and project power along India’s coasts.
- Financial Strength: Access to vast financial resources through the East India Company and British government funding enabled sustained military and administrative expansion.
- Organisational Efficiency: The Company’s bureaucratic discipline and coordination between London and India ensured decisive and centralized control.
- Political Disunity in India: Fragmented regional powers and constant rivalry among princely states made it easy for the British to adopt a piecemeal conquest strategy.
Divide and Rule Policy: The British effectively exploited ethnic, regional, and dynastic divisions, preventing Indian rulers from uniting against them.
FAQs
1. What do we mean by British Expansion in India?
British Expansion in India refers to the gradual territorial, political, and administrative takeover of Indian regions by the British East India Company and later by the British Crown between the 18th and 19th centuries.
2. What were the main factors responsible for British expansion in India?
Key factors included superior military tactics, advanced weaponry, political instability in India, regional rivalries, economic strength of the East India Company, and strategic policies like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse.
3. Which major wars contributed to British territorial expansion?
The Anglo-Mysore Wars, Anglo-Maratha Wars, and Anglo-Sikh Wars played a decisive role in establishing British supremacy across India.
4. What was the Subsidiary Alliance System?
Introduced by Lord Wellesley, it forced Indian rulers to accept a British resident, maintain British troops, and give up independent foreign policy, leading to loss of sovereignty.
5. What was the Doctrine of Lapse?
Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, this policy allowed the British to annex any princely state where the ruler died without a natural male heir.
Click on the question to see the Answers
