23 Nov

Indus Valley Civilization: Origin, Features, and Significance

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Content

• Origin and Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization
• Geographical Factors
• Chronology
• Map of Indus Valley Civilization
• Sites of Indus Valley Civilization
• Features of IVC
• Causes of Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
• FAQs

The Indus Valley civilization represents the earliest known urban culture in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It ranks among the world’s three earliest civilizations, alongside Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. This society thrived from around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Geographical elements such as fertile soil, climate, and various physical features played a role in the emergence of the Indus Valley civilization.

Most of the previously discovered sites, including Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, are located in the Indus Valley, which is how it received its name. Later excavated locations like Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi displayed similar characteristics. Harappa was the first site to be excavated, which is why the civilization is often referred to as the Harappan culture.

Origin and Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization

Origin

The Indian subcontinent’s Indus Valley was among the earliest locations where people established permanent settlements and developed a sophisticated way of life. 

• Its current name derives from its position in the Indus River valley, although it is also referred to as the Indus-Sarasvati Civilization. 
• Numerous sites were later uncovered along the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed.

Discovery of IVC

In 1924, John Marshall proclaimed to the world the existence of a long-lost civilization in the Indus Valley. 

• Charles Masson was the first to find Harappa, recognizing it as an ancient city known as Sangala, dating back to the era of Alexander. 
• The full significance of the ruins was uncovered through excavations in the early twentieth century. Daya Ram Sahni dug up Harappa in 1920, while Rakhaldas Banerjee conducted excavations at Mohenjo-daro in 1921.

Geographical Factors

The Indus Valley’s topography must have been perfect for human habitation and advancement. This area is now unfit for human habitation due to its excessive dryness.

• Figures of a wide range of plants and animals that can only survive in rather moist environments have been found on Indus seals. As a result, it is thought that the weather was fairly moderate.
• The Indus’s enormous plains were incredibly productive. Each year, the floods irrigated the plains and left behind fertile alluvial soil.

Chronology

Using radiocarbon dating, the civilisation may be dated between 3300 and 1300 BCE. Three stages can be distinguished across the entire timeline: Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan.

Phases	Dates	Important Sites	Features
Early Harappan or Regionalization	3300- 2600 BCE	– Harappa – Kot Diji – Amri	– Fortification and grid planning – Development of an incipient trade network – Craft specialisation
Transitional Phase		– Kunal – Dholavira – Harappa	– Increasing level of craft specialization – Organised irrigation system – Partly standardised repertoire of pottery designs and forms
Mature Harappan or Integration	2600- 1800 BCE	– Mohenjo-Daro – Harappa – Kalibangan – Dholavira	– Full-scale urbanisation – Emergence of writing – Uniformity in artefacts – Full-fledged trade
Late Harappan or Localization	Post 1800- 1500/1300 BCE	– Cemetery H at Harappa – Siswal – Rojdi – Rangpur	– Decline, and abandonment of some sites – Rise of pastoral mode

Map of Indus Valley Civilization

Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization, situated in the river basins of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, featured several key cities such as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi, Chanhudaro, Banawali, Dholavira, etc.

• It stretched from Sutkagendor in Balochistan, Pakistan, in the west to Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh in the east; and from Mandu in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south.

Major Indus Valley Sites

Major Sites	Location	Major Findings
Harappa	Punjab province of Pakistan (Ravi River)	– Daya Ram Sahni unearthed the site in the year 1920. – The city was split into two sections, namely the citadel and the lower town. – The Great Granary was within the citadel. – There were sophisticated drainage systems constructed with baked bricks. – There is proof of pottery that was both wheel-made and baked. – Evidence suggests the practice of coffin burials.
Mohenjo-Daro	Sindh Province, Pakistan (Indus River)	– Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. – Mohenjo-Daro had two sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. – Notable features include the Great Bath (a site for ritual bathing) and the Great Granary. – Stone Art includes the sculpture of a Bearded Man. – The Bronze statue of a “Dancing Girl.” – Terracotta items feature representations of bulls and buffalo, along with female figurines. – Evidence of complete burials. – Seals showcase animals, human figures, and various deities, such as the Pashupati seal.
Rakhigarhi	Hisar district, Haryana (Sarasvati River)	– DNA testing of skeletal remains indicated that the inhabitants of the Harappan civilization had a unique lineage. – Urban areas were surrounded by walls, featuring homes constructed from mud and baked bricks. – There was an effective drainage system in place along with adequate sanitation facilities. – The granary was built from mud bricks, with a floor composed of rammed earth and coated with mud. – A seal bearing an alligator emblem was found.
Dholavira	Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat	– Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021. – The cities had a citadel, an intermediate town, and a lower town. – A series of cascading water reservoirs. – Significant use of stone materials in construction. – Unique burial structures. – Black on red pottery, redware, and buff ware pottery. – Famous for its advanced water harvesting system, it’s also referred to as a lake city or a jala durga (water fort).
Lothal	Gulf of Khambhat region, Gujarat	– A large city consisting of an upper section and a lower section. – It had a bead manufacturing facility and tidal shipyard. – It serves as the sole port city of the Indus Valley Civilization. – The inhabitants practiced the worship of the fire deity. – Coffins were utilized in burial sites. – Pottery of red and black hues was produced. – It had earliest signs of rice farming in South Asia.
Kalibangan	Rajasthan, (Ghaggar River)	– It is made up of three mounds. – Known for its remarkable  fire altars and the world’s earliest attested ploughed field. – The earliest form of artificial irrigation was practised. – Different types of burials show social inequalities. – Mesopotamian pottery was discovered at the site, showing the trade relations. – Burnt bricks were used only for drains at Kalibangan.

Features of IVC

The advanced Harappan Phase comprises a variety of urban and rural sites that differ in size and purpose yet can be distinctly recognized as Harappan communities, thanks to characteristics like urban planning, pottery styles, writing, seals, and signs of trade with external regions, among others.

Town Planning

The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were notable for their exceptional urban planning. Excavations conducted at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have uncovered considerable evidence of this.

• Typically, Harappan cities were divided into two sections: the citadel and the outer city. The citadel was on an elevated platform, while the lower city was situated at a reduced elevation. 
• The cities of the Indus Valley were in a grid layout, with streets oriented in north-south and east-west directions, leading to a systematic urban organization. The streets were broad and direct, intersecting at right angles. 
• They boasted an advanced drainage system, with drains made from mortar, lime, and gypsum. Every home included a robust washbasin that directed water into underground drains. 
• There were various types of residences, varying in size. Builders widely used burnt bricks for constructing homes and other structures. Additionally, they equipped houses with wells and bathrooms. 
• Notable structures included the Great Bath and Pillared Hall at Mohenjo-Daro, the dockyard at Lothal, and the granary at Harappa.
  
  

Social Life

Political authority: There may be some sort of political authority/State did exist in the Harappan civilization.

The communications systems, standardization of artifacts, site specialization, use of a common system of writing, and the establishment of trading outposts like Shortughai are evidence of some kind of political authority.

Social classes

The different types of houses indicate different social classes.

Merchants seem to have formed the upper class because trading served as the primary activity.

The artisans and farmers might be the common people.

Dress: The discovery of many spindles suggests the use of cotton and woolen fabrics.

Ornaments

Archaeologists have found a large number of ornaments like necklaces, armlets, finger-rings, bangles, etc., at these sites. Craftsmen made these ornaments using gold, silver, ivory, and precious stones.

Recreation and amusements: The people of Harappa appear to have enjoyed dance and music. They were also familiar with indoor activities such as dice. And Archaeologists discovered a great quantity of terracotta toys in Mohenjo-Daro.

Economic Conditions

The Harappan civilization expanded across a diverse physical environment, including fertile alluvial plains, hilly terrains, plateaus, and coastal regions. So this ecological richness enabled substantial agricultural surplus, which formed the foundation for urban growth.

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Indus Valley people. Their main crops included wheat, barley, peas, and, in certain regions, rice.
• They produced adequate food not only for self-consumption but also for trade.
• Contrary to later civilizations, the Harappans did not use canal irrigation. Instead, they relied on the natural moisture provided by annual floods.
• Fields were typically tilled using wooden ploughshares.

Domestication of Animals

• Indus seals indicate that the Harappans domesticated several animals such as goats, buffaloes, oxen, elephants, dogs, and camels.
• Notably, there is no clear evidence to suggest familiarity with the horse.

Metallurgy

• The Harappans had advanced knowledge of copper, gold, and silver metallurgy. But Copper was the most extensively used metal and appears in weapons, farming implements, ornaments, and household objects.
• Metal casting was a continuous technological tradition. 
• Late Harappan and Chalcolithic sites, including Daimabad in Maharashtra, have yielded remarkable examples of cast-metal sculptures.

Trade

• Harappan cities developed a prosperous trade network supported by urban specialization and organized craft production. Internal trade among various cities flourished.
• The Indus River functioned as the main waterway, facilitating transport and exchange.
• Evidence such as the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamia confirms active long-distance trade.
• Exports included grain, jewellery, and pottery, while imports mainly consisted of fine copper and precious stones.

Religious Practices

John Marshall proposed early interpretations of Harappan religious practices and observed several similarities between Harappan beliefs and later Hindu traditions. And he identified one seal in particular as depicting a ‘Proto-Shiva’ figure.

Proto-Shiva Seal

The seal shows a male deity seated on a raised platform, with heels joined and toes pointing downward, a posture closely resembling mūlabandhāsana in yogic tradition.

Mother Goddess Worship

Archaeologists have also unearthed terracotta figurines resembling a female divinity. Scholars often interpret these as evidence of Mother Goddess worship, symbolizing fertility.

Absence of Temples

Archaeologists have not discovered any structural temples at Harappan sites, which suggests that the Harappans may not have relied on formal temple architecture for their religious practices.

Tree Worship

The Harappans may have revered the pipal tree. One seal, in particular, depicts seven human figures offering obeisance to a pipal tree, indicating its sacred significance.

Art

Harappan artisans handcrafted most human figurines using materials such as bronze, terracotta, steatite, and faience.

Female figurines often display elaborate jewellery and detailed headdresses.

Famous examples of Harappan artistry include the bronze Dancing Girl and the Priest-King sculpture.

Faience

• Faience-an artificial, glazed material made primarily from powdered quartz, was in use widely.
• Harappan sites have yielded numerous faience artefacts, such as beads, bangles, earrings, amulets, and small figurines. It was showcasing their advanced technological skill.

Crafts

• The Harappans were highly skilled craftsmen. And they used copper more frequently than bronze for tools, ornaments, and implements.
• Brick-making and masonry formed important occupations, reflecting their advanced urban planning. And Spinning and weaving were also common crafts. 
• Their pottery, produced on a potter’s wheel, had decorated with various motifs. And it was typically painted in red with black designs.

Script

• Indus seals are an invaluable source for understanding Harappan culture. And these are small rectangular objects, often of terracotta or steatite, depicting vegetation, animals, and a short pictorial script.
• Since the script remains undeciphered, most interpretations rely on the imagery carved on these seals.
• Scholars believe the Indus script is boustrophedon, meaning writers may have written it alternately from left to right and right to left. And it resembling the way an ox turns while ploughing a field.
  

Causes of Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The Harappan Civilization existed for nearly a thousand years and eventually declined around 1300 BCE, coinciding with the arrival of the Aryans in India. But the precise cause of its downfall remains unknown.

Changes in Climatic Conditions

The most widely accepted explanation is a gradual shift in climate, which made the region unsuitable for sustaining large settlements and contributed to the decline.

Natural Calamities

Some scholars believe that natural disasters such as floods or earthquakes may have led to widespread destruction of Harappan cities.

Decline in Trade

Hydrological studies show that the Indus and Sarasvati rivers changed their courses multiple times, possibly around 1900 BCE.
These changes likely disrupted major internal trade routes that connected inland settlements with coastal areas, causing significant economic decline.

FAQs

1. What is the origin period of the Indus Valley Civilization?

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, originated around 3300 BCE during the Bronze Age. It developed in the vast alluvial plains of the Indus River and its tributaries, primarily in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India.

2. Which were the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization?

The civilization was marked by several major urban centers, including Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, both key archaeological sites. Other important cities were Dholavira, known for its sophisticated water management system, and Lothal, which had a significant dockyard indicating maritime trade.

3. What were the distinctive features of Indus Valley urban planning?

The Indus cities were renowned for their advanced urban planning. They featured a well-organized grid pattern of streets, comprehensive drainage systems with covered sewers, standardized baked brick construction, and large communal baths, indicating attention to public health and sanitation.

4. What kind of social structure existed in the Indus Valley Civilization?

While evidence is limited, the Indus society appears to have been relatively egalitarian compared to contemporary civilizations. The uniformity of housing and material culture suggests the absence of extreme social hierarchies or class divides, though priests or elites might have had special roles indicated by certain artifacts.

5. Which animals were domesticated by the Indus Valley people?

They domesticated a variety of animals including cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, camels, and possibly elephants. These animals provided food, labor, and raw materials such as wool.

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