26 Jan

Mughal Empire, UPSC History Notes

Content

• Introduction
• Babur
• Humayun
• Akbar
• Jahangir
• Shah Jahan
• Aurangzeb
• Decline of the Mughal Empire
• FAQs

Introduction

The Mughal Empire represented a decisive phase in Indian history marked by political unification, centralized administration, agrarian expansion, and cultural synthesis. The empire combined Central Asian military traditions with Persian administrative institutions, producing a stable imperial structure that lasted nearly two centuries.

Babur (1526-1530): Founder of the Empire

• Babur established Mughal rule in India after defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526). 
• His success was due to the innovative use of artillery, matchlocks, and cavalry-based warfare, which introduced gunpowder technology decisively into Indian battles.
• Politically, Babur’s rule remained military and transitional, with limited administrative consolidation. 
• However, he laid the foundations of Mughal sovereignty by defeating Rana Sanga at Khanwa (1527) and crushing Afghan resistance.
• Culturally, Babur was a man of refined taste. His autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, written in Turkish, provides valuable information on Indian geography, society, flora, and fauna.

Humayun (1530-1556): Struggle and Restoration

• Humayun, the son of Babur, inherited a politically unstable Mughal Empire. 
• His reign was dominated by conflict with Afghan chiefs, especially Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri), who defeated him in the Battles of Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540), forcing Humayun into exile.
• During his exile in Safavid Persia, Humayun absorbed Persian administrative practices, court culture, art, and architecture, which later shaped Mughal institutions. 
• With Persian support, he reconquered Kabul, Kandahar, and finally Delhi in 1555, restoring Mughal rule.
• Though he introduced no major administrative reforms, Humayun played a crucial historical role by transmitting Sur administrative practices to the Mughals. 
• His reign thus acted as a bridge between Babur’s conquest and Akbar’s consolidation.

Akbar (1556-1605): Consolidation and Empire-Building

• Akbar ascended the Mughal throne in 1556 at the age of thirteen and initially ruled under the regency of Bairam Khan. His victory over Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) marked the decisive re-establishment of Mughal authority in India. Unlike his predecessors, Akbar transformed the Mughal state from a military conquest regime into a stable, centralized empire.

Territorial Expansion and Political Integration

• Akbar pursued a policy of systematic expansion combined with political integration. 
• He annexed Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar, Kashmir, Sindh, and parts of the Deccan, while adopting a conciliatory approach towards the Rajputs through matrimonial alliances and high administrative appointments. 
• This policy ensured loyalty of regional elites and reduced resistance.

Administrative Reforms

• Akbar laid the foundations of Mughal administration. The mansabdari system organized military and civil services based on rank and salary, while the jagirdari system assigned revenue rights instead of cash salaries. 
• The zabt system, developed under Raja Todar Mal, standardized land measurement and revenue assessment, strengthening agrarian administration.

Religious Policy

• Akbar followed the principle of Sulh-i-Kul (universal tolerance). He abolished jizya and pilgrim taxes, encouraged interfaith dialogue at the Ibadat Khana, and patronized scholars of different religions. 
• His Din-i-Ilahi was not a mass religion but an ethical order emphasizing loyalty to the emperor.

Economic and Agrarian Measures

• Akbar’s revenue reforms promoted agricultural expansion and rural stability. Fixed revenue demand and systematic assessment reduced arbitrary exactions, improving state income and peasant confidence. Trade and crafts flourished under imperial patronage.

Cultural Contributions

• Akbar was a major patron of art, architecture, literature, and learning. 
• Persian became the official language, and major Sanskrit texts like the Mahabharata (Razmnama) were translated. 
• Mughal architecture developed a distinctive Indo-Persian style, visible in structures like Fatehpur Sikri.

Historical Significance

• Akbar’s reign marks the true beginning of the Mughal Empire as an imperial state. 
• His policies of administrative centralization, religious tolerance, and political integration provided the framework on which later Mughal rulers built their authority.

Jahangir (1605-1627): Administration and Culture

• Jahangir, the son of Akbar, ascended the Mughal throne in 1605 and largely continued Akbar’s administrative and religious policies, ensuring political stability in the empire. His reign is often seen as a period of consolidation rather than expansion.
• Politically, Jahangir faced early challenges from Prince Khusrau’s rebellion and later increasing influence of Nur Jahan, whose family dominated court politics. Despite this, central administration remained effective. Relations with the Rajputs continued, though conflicts such as with Mewar (Treaty of 1615) marked a pragmatic approach to imperial authority.
• Administratively, Jahangir is noted for his emphasis on justice and rule of law, symbolized by the famous Chain of Justice, which allowed subjects direct access to the emperor. The mansabdari and revenue systems functioned efficiently during his reign.
• In foreign relations, Jahangir encouraged diplomatic and commercial contacts with European powers, especially the English, who received trading privileges. This period marked the expansion of European presence in India.
• Culturally, Jahangir’s reign represented the peak of Mughal painting, with detailed miniature portraits and nature studies. His memoir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, is an important source for understanding Mughal court life and administration.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658): Zenith of Mughal Glory

• Shah Jahan’s reign represents the architectural and cultural zenith of the Mughal Empire. Monumental structures such as the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, and Peacock Throne symbolize imperial grandeur.
• Administratively, he continued Akbar’s systems but increased revenue demands to fund architectural projects and military campaigns, which placed pressure on peasants.
• Militarily, the empire remained strong, but failures in Central Asia (Balkh campaign) exposed strategic limits.
• The later years of his reign were marred by a war of succession, weakening imperial stability.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707): Expansion and Crisis

• Aurangzeb ascended the Mughal throne after a war of succession and ruled for nearly fifty years. His reign marked the maximum territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire, especially in the Deccan, with the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda and prolonged wars against the Marathas.
• Administratively, Aurangzeb was personally austere and disciplined, but continuous military campaigns led to a jagirdari crisis, declining revenue, and administrative inefficiency. The empire became over-centralised yet weak in provincial governance.
• His orthodox religious policies, including the re-imposition of jizya and withdrawal of state patronage from non-Islamic institutions, alienated Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, increasing resistance against Mughal authority.
• Economically, prolonged warfare and heavy taxation caused agrarian distress and peasant uprisings, weakening the empire’s financial base. 
• Though a capable ruler, Aurangzeb left behind a vast but fragile empire, accelerating the decline of Mughal power after his death in 1707.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The decline of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 was a gradual process resulting from a combination of political, administrative, economic, and external factors.
• Politically, the later Mughals were weak and ineffective rulers, lacking both military leadership and administrative control. Continuous wars of succession weakened central authority and encouraged factionalism within the court.
• Administratively, the mansabdari and jagirdari systems deteriorated. Jagirs became insufficient and temporary, leading to corruption, military indiscipline, and declining revenue collection. The empire became over-centralised yet ineffective in governing distant provinces.
• Economically, prolonged wars, especially the Deccan campaigns, exhausted the imperial treasury. Heavy revenue demands led to agrarian distress, peasant revolts, and declining productivity.
• Socially and militarily, resistance from regional powers such as the Marathas, Jats, Sikhs, and Rajputs eroded Mughal authority. The Mughal army failed to modernize in response to changing warfare techniques.
• Externally, Persian and Afghan invasions, notably Nadir Shah’s invasion (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali’s raids, exposed the empire’s weakness. 
• Simultaneously, the growing influence of European trading companies, especially the British, further undermined Mughal sovereignty.
• In sum, the Mughal decline was not due to a single cause but to structural weaknesses compounded by poor leadership and external pressures, leading to the eventual fragmentation of the empire.

FAQs

1. What was the Mughal Empire?

The Mughal Empire was a major imperial power in India founded by Babur in 1526, ruling large parts of the subcontinent for nearly two centuries.

2. Who were the important Mughal rulers?

Key Mughal rulers include Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, with Akbar considered the greatest due to administrative consolidation.

3. Why is Akbar regarded as the most significant Mughal ruler?

Akbar strengthened the empire through military expansion, Rajput alliances, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul), and administrative reforms like the mansabdari system.

4. What was the Mansabdari system?

The Mansabdari system was an administrative and military framework that assigned ranks (zat and sawar) to officials, linking service with salary and military obligation.

5. What were the main features of the Mughal economy?

The Mughal economy was agrarian-based, supported by efficient revenue systems, thriving handicrafts, inland and overseas trade, and urban commercial centres.

Click on the question to see the Answers