12 May

Climate Change and Green House Gases

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Content

• Water Vapor
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6, Nitrogen Trifluoride (NF3) etc.)
• Black Carbon
• Brown Carbon
• Effect of a gas on climate change depends on three main factors
• SDG and Climate Change
• IPCC and Assessment Report 6 (AR-6)
• IPCC Synthesis Report
• AR-6

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• Climate: Long term pattern of weather in a particular area.
• Climate Change:
  • The increasing temperature of earth due to greenhouse effect is known as climate change. It is leading to extreme weather events, melting of Polar ice, rising of sea levels etc.
• Green House Effect: Class discussion
• Greenhouse Gases: Gases in the earth’s atmosphere that trap heat are known as Greenhouse They let sunlight pass through the atmosphere, but they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from leaving the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are crucial for survival of life on earth. In the absence of Greenhouse gases, the average temperature on earth would have been -18 degree Celsius instead of the present 15 degree Celsius.

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1) WATER VAPOR:

• It is the most important Greenhouse gas and plays an important role in controlling earth’s temperature.
  • Water Vapors account for about 60% of the warming effect. The amount water in atmosphere rises with rising temperature and decreases with the fall in temperature. So, in a way it can be said that water vapors in atmosphere is controlled by the temperature.
  • But it is the non-condensable gases (mainly CO2 which is bringing the increase in the temperature after the first industrial revolution) which are really responsible for recent rise in global warming.

2) CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

• It is produced by burning of carbon containing substances, mostly fuels (Coal, natural gas, oil), Solid waste, trees, other biological materials etc.
• CO2 is removedfrom atmosphere when it is absorbed (sequestered) by plants during photosynthesis.
• Concentration of CO2 in atmosphere:
  • For the first time in history, the atmospheric CO2 level reached 419 parts per million (PPM), as measured by the United States’ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Mauna Loa Atmospheric Baseline Observatory in Hawaii.
    • This is nearly 45% above the pre-industrial baseline of 278 PPM in 1750 accepted by IPCC.
  • Our annual CO2 emission have grown about 70 times since the pre-industrial era reaching nearly 36.4 Gt in 2019.

3)  METHANE

• ­As per UNEP, Methane is a GHG which is responsible for 30% of the warming since pre-industrial times. Its contribution is 2nd only to carbondioxide.
  • Although the warming effect of methane is 30 times greater than CO2, it is a shorter lived and lasts in the atmosphere for about 12 years. (CO2 lingers for centuries)
• Why special focus on methane is needed in our fight against climate change?
  • IPCC had said that the methane mitigation has the greatest potential to slow warming over the next 20 years.
    • A 0.3% reduction per year in methane is equivalent to net-zero for CO2 – there would be no additional warming if this level of reduction is achieved.
• Methane Emission: Biggest Source:
  • Natural Sources: Wetlands, termites
    • Wetlands are the largest source of methane.
  • Agriculture – Rice cultivation, animal husbandry generate substantial amount of methane.
  • Energy Production (fossil fuel) – Among anthropogenic factors, after Agriculture, it is this sector which contributes to the highest methane production. It is released during the extraction, processing, and transport of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas.
  • Leakage: For g. the ruptures in the underwater Nord stream in Sep 2022 caused the single largest such release of the greenhouse gas.
  • Landfills in recent times are also becoming a big source of methane
  • Thawing of permafrost in polar region is also releasing methane. In future, it may become a big source of methane emissions.
• Current Emission levels:
  • As per US NOAA, the atmospheric level of methane has jumped to 17 parts per billion in 2021, beating the previous record set in 2020.

A) INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO FIGHT METHANE POLLUTION

IMPROVING DETECTION:

• UNEP has launched International Methane Emissions observatory – the Methane Alert and Response System (MARS) at COP27. It is focused on scaling up global efforts to detect and act on major emissions sources in a transparent manner and accelerate implementation of the global methane pledge.

GLOBAL METHANE PLEDGE ANNOUNCED AT COP26

• By COP27, 150 countries have joined the initiative lead by USA and They have promised to cut their methane emission by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030.
• Significance:
  • Global warming would be reduced by at least 0.2 degree Celsius by 2050, if countries deliver according to the pledge.
  • Health benefits: Oxidation of methane is responsible for formation of ground-level ozone (smog), which is a harmful air pollutant.
• Why has India not joined the pledge?
  • India’s methane emissions are ‘survival emissions‘ and not ‘luxury’ emissions.
    • The two prominent source of methane in India are enteric fermentation and ‘paddy cultivation’ and any restriction on them would harm small and marginal farmers.
  • Other than harming farmers, it may also reduce agri production. Currently, India is one of the largest producers and exporters of rice.
  • India also argues that 6th IPCC report has highlighted that CO2 is the major global warming gas and this pledge is shifting focus to methane which has a lifetime of only 12 years, whereas CO2 can survive for more than 100 years.
• India has not joined the global methane pledge, but it doesn’t mean the India is not worried about methane emissions. There are several fronts on which India is working.
  • National Innovation in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project of ICAR has developed several technologies with the potential to mitigate methane emissions.
    • For instance, the ‘System of Rice Intensification‘ has the potential to enhance rice yield from 36-49% with 22-35% less water than conventional transplanted rice. It also uses less seed, fertilizers, and pesticides.
      • Key steps involve:
        1. Planting young seedlings (less than 15 days old) with only one or two leaves
        2. Planting them singly, spaced widely apart
        3. Maintaining soil moisture at a level that promotes aerobic soil conditions
        4. Controlling weeds by mechanical means, such as hand weeding or using a rotary hoe
        5. Using organic matter to improve soil fertility.
        6. Applying small amounts of fertilizer at specific stages of plant growth
    • Another technology, ‘Direct Seeded Rice’ reduces methane emissions as it does not involve raising nurseries, puddling, and transplanting. Unlike transplanted paddy cultivation, standing water is not mantained in this system.
    • Harit Dhara: It is an anti-methanogenic feed supplement developed by ICAR. It can cut down cattle methane emissions by 17-20% and can also result in higher milk production.
    • Under Crop Diversification Program, methane emission is being avoided due to diversion of paddy to alternate crops like pulses, oilseeds, maize, cotton, and agro-forestry.

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B) REPORT: METHANE GLOBAL TRACKER REPORT BY IEA (FEB 2023)

• Summary:
  • Emissions from Energy Sector: The energy sector accounts for around 40% of the total average methane emissions from human activity, as oil and natural gas companies are known to release methane into the atmosphere when natural gas is flared or vented. The greenhouse gas is also released through leaks from valves and other equipment during drilling, extraction and transportation process.
• How can methane emission be reduced: Although, it’s impossible to completely eliminate all the emissions, 75% of the methane emissions from the energy sector can be reduced with the help of cheap and readily available technology. However, fossil fuel companies have failed to take any substantial action regarding the issue.
• The effort will cost less than 3% of the net income received by the oil and gas industry in 2022.
• Details:
  • Fossil fuel companies emitted 120 million metric tonnes of methane into the atmosphere in 2022, only slightly below the record high seen in 2019.
  • The cheap and readily available technology can reduce 75% of the methane emissions from the energy sector.

B) BURP CONTROL: HOW CAN METHANE RELEASED IN LIVESTOCK BELCHED BE REDUCED? (DEC 2022: SOURCE – DTE)

• Feed Supplements – which can reduce a potent greenhouse gas belched out by stock animals like cattle, goat and A food supplement is considered ideal if it can lower methane emissions by at least 20%.
• In 2021, EU approved a food supplement, Bovaer, developed by Dutch bioscience company Royal DSM, saying it consistently reduces methane emissions from dairy cows by 30-80%.
  • Bovaer, is a fine granular powder containing 3-nitrooxypropanol, which inhibits an essential enzyme responsible for the methane production.

D) TERMITES EMIT METHANE: BUT THE EXTENT OF THEIR RISK TO GLOBAL WARMING IS UNCERTAIN (SOURCE: DTE)

• As per the Global Carbon Project, in 2008-17, the world emitted 576 Tg of methane per year, of which termites contributed 9 Tg.
• However, scientists say that the real emissions may be greater or lesser than this. To establish certainty, there is a need to understand the relationship between termite colonies and methane.
• How is methane produced by Termites?
  • In natural ecosystems, they feed on and recycle the nutrients present in dead and decaying plant and animal matter.
  • It is this cellulose-rich diet that causes their emissions.
  • Methanogenic microorganisms that live in the gut of termites break down the cellulose entering the body and release methane.

4) NITROUS OXIDE (N2O)

• It is the third most important GHG. It is long lived (average > 100 years), and also has ozone depleting properties.
• It is a natural part of the nitrogen cycle. Bacteria in soil and the ocean make It is also produced during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater.
• Reports: Global Nitrous Oxide Budget
  • N2O is accumulating in the atmosphere at an increasing rate, with global emissions of 17 Tg N in 2016, 10% greater than in the 1980s. Net emission (thus net addition) is 3 Tg.
  • Main Anthropogenic factors is the agriculture.
    • Other factors include – fossil fuels, industry, waste and wastewater, and biomass burning.

5) OZONE (O3 ) -> ALREADY COVERED WITH AIR POLLUTION

6) FLUORINATED GASES (HFCS, PFCS, SF6 , NITROGEN TRIFLUORIDE (NF3) ETC.)

• Not naturally found in atmosphere and are manmade.
• Fluorinated gases are used as substitute for ozone depleting substances like CFCs, HCFCs, and
• Though they are released in small quantities, but their global warming potential is very high.

7) BLACK CARBON

• What is black carbon?
  • It is the sooty black material emitted from gas and diesel engines, coal-fired power plants, and other sources that burn fossil fuel. It comprises a significant portion of particulate matter or PM, which is an air pollutant. It consists of pure carbon in several linked forms.
• Environment Pollutant – It is a short-lived pollutant which is the key component of PM2. It has negative implications for our health and may cause respiratory and cardio-vascular diseases, cancer, birth defects and premature mortality.
• Climate Change: It is also responsible for climate change.
  • BC deposits can accelerate the pace of glacier and snow melt in the Himalayan region.
  • How?
  • It is also responsible for affecting the cloud formation and thus affects rainfall.
  • A recent study has shown that it may also be depleting ozone layer.
• Main Sources: Incomplete burning of fuel (i.e., inefficient burning environment) produces black carbon.
  • Solid Fuel burning [coal, biomass etc.]
    • Industry (primary brick kilns) and residential burning of solid fuel together account for about 45-66% of anthropogenic BC deposition in Himalayan region.
  • Diesel exhausts etc. contributes to 7-18% of BC deposits in the Himalayan region.
  • Since, India has a large population depending on bio-mass and solid fuel, it contributes to around 25% of the world’s Black Carbon emission.
    • According to a study published in the journal Atmospheric Research in April 2019, India is the 2nd largest contributor to Black carbon in the world.
• Steps taken by Government to reduce black carbon:
  • Enhancing fuel efficiency standard of Vehicles, phasing out diesel vehicles and promoting electric vehicles
  • Promotion of the use of LPG for cooking (PM Ujjawala Yojana)
  • Clean Cookstoves program
  • Upgrading brick kiln technologies
  • Real time monitoring of black carbon aerosols in the Glaciated valley of northwestern Indian Himalayas.
• However, with all existing measures, water from glacier melt is still projected to increase in absolute volume by 2040, with impact on downstream activities and communities.

8) BROWN CARBON

• ­Brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion. It is a light absorbing part of the organic aerosol (note: soot is also light absorbing in nature). In recent years it has come under a lot of research.
  • It absorbs strongly in the ultraviolet wavelength (high frequency) and less significantly into the visible (low frequency).
  • Sources of Brown Carbon
    • Tar Material from smoldering fires or coal combustion.
    • Breakdown products from biomass burning, stubble burning.
    • A mixture of organic compounds emitted from soil, and volatile organic compounds given off by vegetation.
• TAJ: The Pollutants causing discoloration identified
  • Particulate carbon and fine dust particles that are deposited on the marble are responsible for its browning.
  • Brown Carbon: The group of carbon which absorbs light in the blue region of spectrum, and this is called brown carbon. Discoloration is because of what is happening to reflectance, reflectance in turn is influenced by these particles.
  • Presence of hematite in the dust that is responsible for the brown hue. If hematite is not present in the dust then the dust would be only scattering in nature. Hematite is the ingredient that absorbs the blue wavelength of the spectrum.
• Note: Brown Carbon vs Black Carbon
  • Black carbon is primarily produced by high temperature combustion and brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion.
  • Of the total atmospheric absorption by aerosol, brown carbon contributes about 19%, while 72% is contributed by Black carbon. The remaining 9% is due to the coating effect of sulfate and organic aerosols on black carbon.
  • Both of these are two most important light absorbing substances in the atmosphere.
• Tarballs and its implications
  • Tarballs are formed from brown carbon. They are small light absorbing, carbonaceous particles formed due to burning of fossil fuels that deposit on snow and ice.
  • Recent research has shown that tarballs from long-range transport can be an important factor in the climatic effect of glacier melting in Himalayas.
    • Nearly, 28% of particles collected from the air samples from a research station in Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau were tarballs.

Extra for Pre

Blue Carbon: It is the carbon that is stored and sequestered in the coastal ecosystem such as Mangroves, seagrass meadows and intertidal saltmarshes.

9)  EFFECT OF A GAS ON CLIMATE CHANGE DEPENDS ON THREE MAIN FACTORS:

• 1. Quantity e., how much of the gas is present in the atmosphere.
  2. Life e., for what duration can the gas survive in atmosphere
  3. Strength e., how strongly they trap the heat
• For each gas a Global Warming Potential (GWP) is calculated by considering its duration of existence (i.e., life) and strength of its impact.

10) SDG AND CLIMATE CHANGE

• Goal 13: Climate Action
• Targets
  • Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
  • Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning.
  • Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
  • Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible
  • Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities.

3. IPCC AND ASSESSMENT REPORT 6 (AR-6)

• Recent News:
  • Scotsman James Skea elected new IPCC chair in Nairobi. He is a professor of sustainable development at Imperial College London and will lead IPCC through its seventh assessment report (July 2023: Source: DTE)
    • The election was held at 59th session of IPCC which was held at UNEP headquarter in Nairobi, Kenya.
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the UN body for assessing the science related to climate change. Its job is to assess already published scientific literature to update our knowledge of climate change science.
• IPCC’s Assessment Reports (ARs), which are produced every few years, are the most comprehensive and widely accepted scientific evaluations of the state of Earth’s climate.
• They form the basis for government policies against climate change and provide scientific foundation for the global Climate Change negotiations.
• So far, Six Assessment Reports have been produced.
• IPCC was set up in 1988 by World Meteorological organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) to provide policy makers with regular assessment of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigations.
• Currently it has 195 members and relies on thousands of scientists who volunteer their time to support its work.
  • India is a member of IPCC

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A) WHAT HAVE PREVIOUS REPORTS (AR-1 TO AR-5) SAID?

• ­The first Assessment Report (1990) noted that anthropogenic emissions are increasing atmospheric GHGs. In the business-as-usual scenario, temperature was likely to increase by 2 degree C compared to pre- industrial levels by 2025, and 4 degree C by 2100.
  • The report formed the basis for the negotiation of the UNFCCC in 1992, known as the Rio Earth Summit.
• The Second Assessment Report (1995) revised the projected rise in global temperature to 3 degree C above pre-industrial level by 2100. It was the scientific underpinning for the Kyoto Protocol of 1997.
• The third Assessment Report (2001) projected the rise in global temperature to 4 to 5.8 degree C by 2100 compared to 1990.
• The fourth Assessment Report (2007) said that the GHG emissions increased by 40% between 1970 and 2004 and the atmospheric CO2 was the most in 650,000 years. In the worst-case scenario, the global temperature could rise by 4.5 degrees.
  • The report won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for IPCC. It was also the scientific input for the 2009 Copenhagen Climate meeting.
• The fifth Assessment Report (2014) said that more than 50% of the temperature rise since 1950 is due to human activities. The rise in global temperature by 2100 could be as high as 8 degree C from pre-industrial times, and more frequent longer heatwaves were “virtually certain”. It formed the scientific basis of the Paris Agreement in 2015.

1) IPCC SYNTHESIS REPORT

• Why in news?
  • The IPCC has released its Synthesis report for the sixth assessment Cycle on 20th March in Interlaken, Switzerland
    • The report was signed by country representatives – an unusual step taken to ensure governments accept its findings (March 2023)
• What is the report?
  • It is a compilation of the main findings of the IPCC’s sixth assessment report, based on the results from three Working Groups (WGs).
    • WG, I evaluated the physical science basis of the climate change.
    • WG II evaluated the impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability,
    • WG III evaluated the mitigation.
    • The synthesis report also drew from Special Report based on Global Warming of 1.5 degree C (Oct 2018), Climate Chane and Land (August 2019), and the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (Sep 2019)
  • The report was finally approved by nations after major economies like China, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, the US, and EU raised concerns about the working of the text.
  • Key Highlights:
    • The report highlights the urgency of drastically reducing the emission of greenhouse gases and so limit rising global temperature by 1.5 degree C from pre-industrial levels, set by the Paris Agreement.

2) AR-6

• The sixth report was published in three parts: – the first in Aug 2021, the second in Feb 2022, and the third in April 2022. These three parts were by three working groups of scientists:
  • Working Group-1: Deals with scientific basis of climate change
  • Working Group-2: Looks at likely impacts, vulnerabilities, and adaptation issues.
  • Working Group-3: Deals with action that can be taken to combat climate change.
• The first report “Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis” highlighted the following:
  1. Climate was changing more rapidly than originally anticipated by climate
  2. Rise in global temperature was direct result of human activities and there is ‘unequivocal evidence’ about it.
  3. Temperature has already rise by 1 degrees from the pre-industrial 19th century.
  4. Greenhouse gas Emissions:
     • Emissions of Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide breached records in 2020.
     • CO2 Concentration in the atmosphere – at around 416 parts per million – are the highest they have been in 2 million years.
  5. Impact:
     • A more intense and frequent heatwaves; increased incident of extreme rainfall; a dangerous rise in sea-levels; prolonged droughts; Melting of glaciers.
• The second report: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
  • The report recognizes the interdependence of climate, ecosystem, and biodiversity, and human societies and integrates knowledge more strongly across the natural, ecological, social and economic sciences than earlier IPCC reports.

A) THE THIRD REPORT: CLIMATE CHANGE 2022: MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE

• The report lays out actions that the world can take to stop global temperatures rising beyond certain levels by the end of the century.
• If countries stick to current NDC commitments, it will lead to breach of 1.5 degree C temperature rise.
  • Even the 2-degree Celsius target, in that case, would rely on “rapid acceleration” of climate actions after 2030.
    • What should be the reduction to prevent temperature rise beyond 1.5 degree C?
      • Global GHG emissions to peak before 2025 at the latest and be reduced by 43% by 2030; at the same time methane also needs to be reduced by 43% by 2030. Global use of coal, oil and gas in 2050 must decline by about 95%, 60% and 45% respectively, relative to 2019.
      • Even if all this happens, it is almost inevitable that this ceiling would be temporarily breached but, with appropriate action, it could again dip by the end of century.
  • Global warming would stabilize if emissions reach net zero.
    • For 1.5 degree C target, this meant achieving net zero emissions globally in the early 2050s; for 2 degree C, it is in early 2070s.
    • Even limiting warming to 2 degree C would require greenhouse gas emissions to peak before 2025 at the latest and be reduced by a quarter by 2030.

• • Carbon Inequality remains pervasive as ever with LDCs emitting only 3.3% of global emissions in 2019.
    • Their average per capita emissions in the period 1990-2019 were only 1.7 tonnes CO2e, compared to global average of 6.9 tCO2e.
  • The Least Developed Countries (LDCs) emitted only 3% of global emissions in 2019.
• Abundant and Affordable Solutions exist across sectors including energy, buildings, and transport, as well as individual Behavioural changes.
  • The report has detailed 60 different options and pathways that can lead to 40-70% reduction in global emissions.
  • It states with high confidence that “several mitigation options, notably solar energy, wind energy, electrification of urban systems, urban green infrastructure, energy efficiency, demand side management, improved forests – and crop/grassland management and reduced food wastage and loss, are technically viable, are becoming increasingly cost effective and are generally supported by the public“.
  • The per-unit costs of several low emissions technologies have fallen continuously since 2010, however innovation has lagged in developing countries due to weak enabling conditions.
    • On a unit costs basis, solar energy has dropped 85%, wind by 55%, and lithium-ion by 85%.
      • Their deployment and usage has increased multifold since 2010 – 10 times for solar and 100 times for electric vehicles.
    • Factors: Higher public spending in R&D; Funding for demonstration and pilot projects; and demand pull instruments such as deployment subsidies to attain scale.

• The report covers demand side mitigation and states that it can help reduce emissions by 40-70% by 2050.
  • Demand Side Mitigation can be achieved through changes in socio-cultural factors, infrastructure design and use, and end-use technology adoption by 2050.

Food	Industry	Land transport
1. Socio-cultural factors Dietary shift (shifting to balanced, sustainable healthy diets), avoidance of food waste and over-consumption 2. Infrastructure use Choice architecture¹ and information to guide dietary choices; financial incentives; waste management; recycling infrastructure 3. End-use technology adoption Currently estimates are not available (for lab-based meat and similar options - no quantitative literature available, overall potential considered in socio-cultural factors)	1. Manufactured products Socio-cultural factors Shift in demand towards sustainable consumption, such as intensive use of longer-lived repairable products 2. Infrastructure use Networks established for recycling, repurposing, remanufacturing and reuse of metals, plastics and glass; labelling low emissions materials and products 3. End-use technology adoption Green procurement to access material-efficient products and services; access to energy-efficient and CO2 neutral materials	1. Mobility Teleworking or telecommuting; active mobility through walking and cycling Public transport; shared mobility; compact cities; spatial planning Electric vehicles; shift to more efficient vehicles
Building	Electricity
Shelter Social practices resulting in energy saving; lifestyle and behavioural changes Compact cities; rationalisation of living floor space; architectural design; urban planning (e.g., green roof, cool roof, urban green spaces etc.) Energy efficient building envelopes and appliances; shift to renewables	Additional electrification (+60%) Additional emissions from increased electricity generation to enable the end-use sectors' substitution of electricity for fossil fuels, e.g. via heat pumps and electric cars {Table SM5.3; 6.6} Industry Land transport Buildings Load management² - Demand-side measures -73% Reduced emissions through demand-side mitigation options (in end-use sectors: buildings, industry and land transport) which has potential to reduce electricity demand³

• Individuals can also contribute in other ways:
  • Putting political pressure on leaders.
• Many options available now in all sectors are estimated to offer substantial potential to reduce net emissions by 2030. Relative potential and cost will vary across countries in the longer term compared to 2030.

Energy

AFOLU

Buildings

Transport

Industry

Other

• Implementing these mitigation strategies would come at a substantial cost. The report estimates that taking the actions to keep temperature below 2 degree C could reduce global GDP by 3% to 2.7% by 2050, but not doing so has its own costs.
• Climate Finance:
  • Tracked financial flows were still falling short of the levels needed to achieve mitigation goals across all sectors and regions.
  • The gaps are the widest for the agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) sector and for developing countries.
  • But the global financial system is large enough and “sufficient global capital and liquidity” exist to close these gaps.
• Implications of the report for India
  • The report warns against opening new coal plants.
    • The report says that Coal-fired power plants, without the technology to capture and store carbon (CCS), would need to be shuttered by 2050 if the world aspired to limit global temperature rise to 1.5-degree C.

B) OTHER IPCC REPORT

• IPCC Report, 2018: The Special Report on Global Warming (1.5C Report)
• IPCC Report: Special Report on Climate Change and Land
• IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere (SROCC)